Social Inequality and Exclusion in India

What Is Social About Social Inequality And Exclusion?

In any society, some people have greater access to valued resources—like wealth, power, and prestige—than others. This unequal distribution of resources is a central fact of social life. However, sociology is interested in a specific kind of inequality: social inequality. Similarly, while any individual can feel 'left out', sociology is concerned with social exclusion. The key to understanding both concepts is the word 'social'.

Social Inequality

Social inequality is not about the natural differences between individuals, such as their varying talents, abilities, or efforts. While these individual differences exist, social inequality refers to the systematic and structured patterns of inequality that are a characteristic of society itself. It is the result of a system of social stratification that ranks entire categories of people in a hierarchy and gives them unequal access to resources and opportunities.

What makes it 'social' is that:

It is not about individuals, but about groups: It affects large categories of people, such as women, Dalits, or Adivasis, who share a common social status.
It is systematic and structured: The inequality is not random or accidental. It is built into the major institutions of society—the economy, the education system, the family—and is reproduced over time.
It persists over generations: An individual's position in the social hierarchy is heavily influenced by the family and group they are born into.

For example, the fact that a child from a wealthy, upper-caste family is far more likely to get into a top university than a child from a poor, lower-caste family is not just a matter of individual intelligence. It is a reflection of a system of social inequality that has given one child structural advantages (better schools, coaching, cultural capital) and the other structural disadvantages.

Social Exclusion

Social exclusion is a related but distinct concept. It refers to the processes through which individuals or groups are systematically blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights, opportunities, and resources that are normally available to members of a different group. It is not accidental but is a result of structural factors.

Key features of social exclusion:

It is involuntary: Individuals are excluded regardless of their own wishes.
It is systematic: It is a result of social processes and institutional practices, not individual attitudes alone.
It can be multifaceted: A group can be excluded from economic, political, and cultural life simultaneously.

Example: Caste-based Exclusion

The historical practice of 'untouchability' is a classic and extreme example of social exclusion. Dalits were not just economically poor; they were systematically excluded from participation in the social and cultural life of the community. They were denied access to common resources like village wells, barred from entering temples, and forced to live in segregated settlements on the outskirts of the village. This exclusion was not based on their individual behaviour but was a consequence of their ascribed status in the caste system.

In essence, social inequality is about the vertical distance between different strata, while social exclusion is about the creation of horizontal barriers that prevent certain groups from participating fully in society.

Caste And Tribe – Systems Justifying And Perpetuating Inequality

In India, the systems of caste and tribe have been the most powerful and enduring mechanisms for justifying and perpetuating social inequality and exclusion. While both are based on ascribed status, they have distinct historical origins and characteristics.

The Caste System As A Discriminatory System

The caste system is a unique system of social stratification based on a rigid hierarchy of ritual purity and pollution. As discussed previously, it is characterized by features like hereditary membership, endogamy, and restrictions on social interaction. The key feature of the caste system that makes it a profoundly discriminatory system is the ideology that justifies the hierarchy as natural and morally right.

The groups that have suffered the most extreme form of discrimination under this system are those who were historically considered 'untouchable'—today known as Dalits or Scheduled Castes (SCs). The term 'untouchability' refers to a set of practices that imposed severe social disabilities on these groups and excluded them from the mainstream of social life. The Indian Constitution, through Article 17, formally abolished untouchability and made its practice in any form a punishable offense.

The State's Response: Reservation Policy

To remedy the historical injustices and disadvantages faced by the Scheduled Castes (and Scheduled Tribes), the Indian state implemented a policy of reservations (a form of affirmative action). This policy reserves a certain percentage of seats in government jobs, educational institutions, and elected political bodies for members of these communities. The reservation policy is intended to promote inclusion and provide a measure of equality of opportunity. However, it has also been a highly contentious and debated issue in Indian politics.

The Other Backward Classes (OBCs)

The category of 'Other Backward Classes' (OBCs) refers to a large and diverse group of castes that are low in the traditional caste hierarchy but are not 'untouchable'. These are typically the castes of artisans, tenant farmers, and other service providers (often referred to as 'Shudra' castes in the Varna system). They are socially and educationally disadvantaged but are considered to be in a better position than the Scheduled Castes.

The OBCs were recognized as a category deserving of affirmative action following the recommendations of the Mandal Commission in 1980. The implementation of the Mandal Commission report in 1990, which recommended a 27% reservation for OBCs in central government jobs, was a landmark moment in Indian politics. It led to intense political debate and social conflict, but it also marked the political empowerment of a large section of the Indian population.

Adivasi Struggles

Adivasis, or the Scheduled Tribes (STs), are the indigenous communities of India. Historically, they have lived in relative isolation in hills and forests, with their own distinct cultures, languages, and modes of livelihood. Unlike caste, which is a system of hierarchy and integration (even if exploitative), the traditional relationship between Adivasis and mainstream society was one of distance.

The Process of Dispossession

The major source of the problems faced by Adivasis has been the process of their integration into the mainstream economy and society, which has largely been a process of dispossession.

Loss of Forests and Land: The British colonial government started the process of taking over Adivasi lands and forests for commercial exploitation. This process accelerated after independence in the name of 'national development'.
Development-Induced Displacement: Adivasi territories are rich in mineral resources and are the sites of many large development projects like dams, mines, and industrial plants. These projects have led to the large-scale displacement of Adivasi communities from their ancestral lands, often with little or no proper compensation or rehabilitation.

Having lost their land and livelihood, many Adivasis have been forced to migrate to work as poorly paid wage labourers in plantations, mines, and construction sites. The result has been their transformation from self-sufficient communities into a highly impoverished and marginalized segment of Indian society. In response, there have been numerous Adivasi struggles and movements across the country demanding the protection of their land rights (jal, jangal, zameen - water, forest, land) and the right to self-determination.

Struggle For Women’s Equality And Rights

Gender is another major axis of social inequality in India. Patriarchy—a social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property—has been a deeply entrenched feature of Indian society. This has resulted in the systematic disadvantage and subordination of women in many spheres of life.

The struggle for women's equality in India has a long history, dating back to the social reform movements of the 19th century. Reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy and Jyotiba Phule campaigned against practices like sati (widow immolation) and child marriage and advocated for women's education.

After independence, the Constitution granted women formal equality, including the right to vote. However, formal equality has not translated into substantive equality in practice. The contemporary women's movement in India, which gained momentum in the 1970s, has highlighted a range of issues:

Violence against Women: Drawing attention to issues like domestic violence, dowry-related deaths, and sexual assault, and demanding stronger laws and state action.
Economic Inequality: Fighting for equal wages, property rights, and better working conditions for women.
Political Representation: Campaigning for greater representation of women in legislative bodies, leading to the demand for a Women's Reservation Bill.
Health and Reproductive Rights: Highlighting issues like high maternal mortality and the problem of sex-selective abortion.
Challenging Patriarchy: The movement has also worked to challenge patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in the family, the workplace, and the media.

The struggle for gender equality in India is an ongoing process that involves legal reform, political mobilization, and a cultural transformation of patriarchal mindsets.

The Struggles Of The Disabled

People with disabilities, often referred to as 'differently-abled' to emphasize their abilities rather than their impairments, constitute one of the most marginalized and excluded groups in society. The way society treats the disabled has undergone a significant transformation, moving from a 'charity' or 'medical' model to a 'social' or 'rights-based' model.

The Charity/Medical Model: This traditional view sees disability as a personal tragedy or a medical problem residing within the individual. The disabled person is seen as an object of pity or charity, or as a patient who needs to be 'cured'. This model often leads to their segregation in special institutions.
The Social Model: This modern view, advocated by the disability rights movement, makes a crucial distinction between 'impairment' (a physical or mental condition) and 'disability' (the social exclusion and disadvantage caused by society's failure to accommodate the needs of people with impairments). From this perspective, disability is a social problem. It is the inaccessible buildings, the lack of ramps, the discriminatory attitudes, and the inflexible work environments that 'disable' a person, not their impairment itself.

The struggles of the disabled in India have focused on shifting public perception and state policy towards this social model. The disability rights movement has campaigned for:

Accessibility: Making public spaces, transport, and information accessible to people with all types of impairments.
Inclusive Education: The right of disabled children to be educated in mainstream schools alongside their non-disabled peers.
Employment Rights: Fighting for equal opportunities in employment and reservations in government jobs.
Legal Rights: The enactment of strong legislation to protect their rights, such as the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, which recognizes a wide range of disabilities and mandates measures for ensuring equality and non-discrimination.

The core demand of the disability rights movement is the right to live with dignity and to participate fully in all aspects of social life, challenging the deeply ingrained stereotypes and prejudices that lead to their social exclusion.